FCS 490R Fashion History. Terms and Definitions. Chapter Eleven
Chapter Eleven
Chapter Eleven: The Directoire and Empire Period
1. A la Titus (Hairstyle): McKelle Marshall
During the opening performance at the Comédie-Française in Paris on November 17, 1790, there was pandemonium in the theatre when the actor playing Brutus cried, “Gods! Give us death rather than slavery!” The coiffure à la Titus was a short and choppy cut. Bangs were left long over the forehead, and the hair was cropped to the top of the neck in the back. Initially popular with Republican men, by the mid-1790s the hairstyle was also sported by women. https://shannonselin.com/2015/05/coiffure-a-la-titus/ During the later years of the French Revolution, many fashionable young men and women of the upper and middle classes began to cut their hair short. It was called the Titus haircut, or coiffure à la Titus. The name is a reference to Titus Junius Brutus, the elder son of Lucius Junius Brutus, who founded the Roman Republic in 509 BC by famously overthrowing the Roman monarchy.The unlikely connection between an ancient Roman nobleman and a late-18th-century French haircut begins in 1729, with the French Enlightenment writer Voltaire, who had just finished composing a five-act play called Brutus. The Titus hairstyle has another connection to the French Revolution—this one though the blade of the guillotine. After the Reign of Terror that saw the execution of thousands of people, it became fashionable for the young people to imitate the look of those unfortunate victims who had been put to the guillotine. They cut their hair short the way executioners cut their victims hair to make sure the blade went cleanly through the neck, and tied red ribbon around their neck to indicate the fatal cut. It has also been alleged that many high societies organized balls and parties—called bals des victimes (victims’ balls)—to celebrate the fall of the old government.
https://www.amusingplanet.com/2020/04/the-guillotine-haircut.html
2. A la Victime (Hairstyle): Amber Davidson
Textbook: A short chopped like hairstyle. It was a haircut given to victims who were guillotined during the French Revolution for both men and women. The hair was chopped off to make sure the blade went cleanly through the neck. Rising revolutionary politicians were accusing people of treason against the new republic. Around 16,500 people were killed by guillotine in a single year. This was called the Reign of Terror which happened from September 5, 1793, to July 27, 1794. People who had relatives who had died by the guillotine wore this hairstyle as a statement and intent to express solidarity with those who had been guillotined. Helping them reconnect with other survivors of the Reign of Terror, but also separate themselves from the “blood-drinkers” (killers of their relatives) of the revolution. Women who had this haircut would also wear red as either a choker necklace or red shawls with it to resemble prisoners and the blade at their necks.
https://shannonselin.com/2015/05/coiffure-a-la-titus/
https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/172192385729430487/
https://www.messynessychic.com/2019/08/20/how-guillotine-haircuts-became-all-the-rage-in-france/
https://www.britannica.com/event/Reign-of-Terror
3. Bonnet Rouge: Amber Davidson
Textbook: Red Cap. One of the most obvious and visible symbols of the French revolution was the Bonnet Rough. The cap is thought to have Roman origins. It was believed the cap was worn in Greece and Rome as a symbol of freedom and a rally cry for those who hated despotism (exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and oppressive way). Sans-culotte (a lower-class Parisian republican in the French Revolution) militants wore one to show their loyalty and was widely used in propaganda.
https://www.thoughtco.com/phrygian-cap-bonnet-rouge-1221893
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/360006563935804608/
4. Carmagnole - Angel Cooper
The jacket known as the Carmagnole is said to have been worn during the French Revolution by the Sans-culottes, workers, tradesmen and a few members of the Convention. The name is taken from La Carmagnole, a Revolutionary song and dance. “a short-skirted coat with rows of metal buttons, a tricoloured waistcoat, and red cap.”
https://www.palaisgalliera.paris.fr/en/work/carmagnole-jacket
https://www.britannica.com/art/carmagnole
5. Dandy - Elizabeth Gibbons
Dandy is a term used to describe a fashionable and stylish man. A Dandy would primarily be dressed in tailored coats, spotless linen shirts, well-kept cravats, dark-colored pantaloons, and polished boots. In the 18th century, one form of Dandy would have been the Macaronis - men with elaborate and exaggerated styles of dress, often ditto suits which included layers of lace ruffles and gold embroidery, knee buckles, striped stockings, shoes with bright red heels, and a tricorne. In the 19th century, the term was used to describe the more simple dress of an associate of the Prince Regent: George Bryan "Beau" Brummell. Brummell was not a member of the aristocracy or anyone of social consequence, and except for his manner of dress he would not be known at all. In this way he was considered one of the first known celebrities - someone who is most famous for being famous.
http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/European-Culture-19th-Century/The-Dandy.html
https://thedressco.de/Dandy
https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-gb/auction-catalogues/dukes/catalogue-id-srdu10030/lot-b435036f-3188-4d31-879b-a5a300d638e2
“Survey of Historic Costume” by Tortora & Eubank 2011
6. Grecian Bend - Angel Cooper
In the 1860s, it was fashionable for American women to wear their skirts gathered at the back into panniers, with a bustle serving as the base upon which all of that fabric could be pinned. The style required the woman to lean forward in an exaggerated way, in order to compensate for all of that weight at her back. This lean, exacerbated by corsets and high-heeled shoes, came to be called the “Grecian Bend,” named after the way that women in some Greek sculptures hunched their shoulders in implied modesty at their nudity. The Grecian Bend was a stooping fashion that first made its appearance England in the 1820s, but it did not reach the pinnacle of popularity until Victorian times (somewhere between 1869 and 1880). It supposedly acquired its name from the graceful Venus de Milo as she inclined slightly forward. The stooping fashion was also imitative of a physical affliction and because physical afflictions often could not be corrected or because famous people had them, people copied them and adopted them as a fashion statement. Also making the fashion more appealing, was the belief that any woman who adopted the Grecian Bend was bold and daring.
https://www.geriwalton.com/the-grecian-bend/
https://slate.com/human-interest/2013/04/grecian-bend-a-laughable-fashion-trend-from-the-1860s.html
7. High Stomacher Dress - Allison Boyes
Sources: https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/stomacher/
A complex construction in which the bodice was sewn to the skirt at the back only. Side front seams were left open to several inches below the waist of the skirt. There was a string around the skirt that the woman would tie around her back like an apron to keep the skirt on. The outer bodice would close in front like a shawl, buttoned up or laced up over a short undershirt. “Sometimes the stomachers were stitched or pinned in place, on other occasions they were held in place by the lacings of the gown’s bodice.”
Fig. 1 - Designer unknown (European). Stomacher, 1750-1775. Silk, metal, paper, linen. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.300.1750. Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the Brooklyn Museum, 2009; Gift of Pratt Institute, 1934. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
8. Incroyable- Lexy Holman
The Incroyables (the Incredibles) and the Merveilleuses (the Marvelous Ones) were part of a rebellious youth movement that arose during the 1790s, during the French Revolution (1789–99). The revolution had begun a tremendous upheaval in France pitting the poor and the middle class against the wealthy, and the government was very unstable. The Incroyables (men) and the Merveilleuses (women) made their political statement by dressing in outlandish fashions that exaggerated and mocked the luxurious styles that had been worn in the court of King Louis XVI (1754–1793), who had recently been executed by the revolutionary government. (Incredibles) Extreme fashions adopted by some French men in the Directoire period. The name is said to have been given in allusion not only to the extravagant dress, but also to the frequent use of the phrase ``C'est vraiment incroyable'' (That is really incredible.) Outfits consisted of waistcoats of loose fit at the shoulders, very tight breeches, and cravats or neckties that covered so much of their chin that it is wondered if they could even be heard when they spoke.
Read more: http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/European-Culture-18th-Century/Incroyables-and-Merveilleuses.html#ixzz6bYsGab8D
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/383111?searchField=All&ao=on&ft=incroyables&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=4 https://findwords.info/term/incroyable
9. Merveilleuse- Lexy Holman
(The marvelous ones) The female extreme fashion adopted by progressive women in France. Their influence affected the most extreme of the Directoire styles: long flowing trains, sheer fabrics, extreme necklines (some even went to the waist) and huge jockey-like caps. The Merveilleuses exaggerated the Greek style, wearing loose gowns made of several yards of fabric so sheer that they were almost transparent. They often increased this "naked" look by dampening the cloth of their dresses to make them cling more closely to the body.
http://www.kpubs.org/article/articleMain.kpubs?articleANo=BSMHBM_2004_v12n3_429
http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/European-Culture-18th-Century/Incroyables-and-Merveilleuses.html
10. Pantalettes - Rebecca Odd
Long, straight, white drawers trimmed with rows of lace or tucks at the hem that became fashionable for a short time around 1809. THe fashion did not continue for long, but young girls wore them throughout this and subsequent periods.
https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/pantalettes/
https://www.martelnyc.com/seventeenth-century/shoemaking-1600-to-1850.html Textbook
11. Pantaloons - Rebecca Odd
Mens garment that fit more closely than trousers. This was to show off their good legs that were both slim and muscular. A slight degree of stuffing was recommended. Stockings worn under pantaloons were kept in place by the tightness of the design and fabric.
https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/2013/06/21/regency-fashion-mens-breeches-pantaloons-and-trousers/
Textbook
https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/pantalettes/
12. Pelisse- Maggie Morton
The pelisse was very similar to a modern coat. It was a women’s long coat, generally full length with long sleeves and a front opening. They mimicked the dresses they covered and followed the typical empire period silhouette with the high waistline.This garment was the preferred coat for outdoors during this period. For winter, especially when made of silk or cotton, pelisses had warm linings to help keep them warm.
https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/pelisse/
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/159181
“Survey of Historic Costume” by Tortora & Eubank 2011
13. Petticoat (undergarment) - Allison Boyes
Petti Coats are under skirts that go under a dress to provide, warmth, shape to the dress, modesty, and to act as underwear so that the outer garment didn't need to be cleansed as often. During winter women would often wear several petticoats made of fabrics such as: plain weave cotton cambric & linen, cotton flannel and were stiffened with horsehair on the end. American Petticoat from 1855-1865 from The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Sources: https://georgianera.wordpress.com/2018/11/20/quilted-petticoats-worn-by-all-women-and-useful-in-more-ways-than-one/
14. Reticule- Maggie Morton
The reticule was a very small handbag or purse popular all the 18th century and into the 19th century. It was also known as an indispensibles. They were often fastened with a drawstring at the top and were carried on over the arm on a cord or chain. In earlier periods, when skirts had been full, pockets placed under the skirt were used for carrying small personal objects. The narrow silhouette of the empire period made such pockets impractical. So, the reticule replaced the pocket. Some found the device amusing and took to calling it a “ridicule.” They were very similar to a modern-day evening bag that basically just carries the essentials and small items. When it first appeared, the bag was made of netting. The term “reticule” comes from reticulum, the Latin word for “net.” As time went by, they were made from all kinds of fabrics, including velvet, silk, and satin. Reticules were made in a variety of styles and shapes. They could be decorated with embroidery, tassels, fringe, or beading. A lot of times, women made their own reticules.
https://daily.jstor.org/a-mini-history-of-the-tiny-purse/
https://thedreamstress.com/2013/11/terminology-what-is-a-reticule-or-indispensable/
“Survey of Historic Costume” by Tortora & Eubank 2011
15. Sans Culottes- McKelle Marshall
The sans-culotte consisted of the working-class. During the height of the sans-culottes movement, Momoro remarked, "A sans-culotte is someone who goes everywhere on foot, who isn't loaded with money like the rest of you, but lives quietly with his wife and children . . . on the fourth or fifth floor" (Lewis, 102). The reference to the upper floors comes from the fact that the poorer workers tended to occupy the top floors or attics of apartment blocks. Such descriptions are evocative, but misleading. The sans-culotte did not necessarily represent the poorest section of the urban crowd, as pictured above. Some were poor, but the militant sans-culottes were more often than not skilled workers and shopkeepers from the middle class. The elite members of the sans-culotte preferred the trousers of the working-man. They disdained the breeches of the aristocracy or upper-middle classes. They felt that all classes were equal and, therefore, should not be segregated by fashion. In the picture above, the members are working-men and hold the pike to symbolize their militancy. The pike was a common weapon of the lower class, because it was easily constructable. It evened the playing field between the lower class revolutionaries and the king's army.
https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255/la/sans-culottes.html
French sans-culotte ("without knee breeches"), in the French Revolution, a label for the more militant supporters of that movement, especially in the years 1792 to 1795. Sansculottes presented themselves as members of the poorer classes or leaders of the common people, but during the Reign of Terror public functionaries and educated men also adopted the label to demonstrate their patriotism.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/sansculotte https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sans-culottes
16. Spencer - Elizabeth Gibbons
A Spencer was a style of short jacket adopted by both men and women in the early 19th century. It would reach only as far as the waistline, and in order to flatter the silhouette of lady’s dresses during this time the female Spencer jacket would end just under the bust. There are multiple stories about where the jacket’s origins stem from, although none have been proven factually true. It may have been coined from Lord Spencer when he a) won a bet by cutting off his coat tails to prove that he could start a new fashion within two weeks, b) singed his coat tails while at a party and cut them off, and/or c) lost his coat tails when he was thrown from his horse, and decided to start wearing the jacket without the coat tails.
https://libertabooks.com/costume/historical-costume-1800-1820-spencer/
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/84310
https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/spencer-jacket/
https://www.etsy.com/listing/703670684/ladies-regency-spencer-jacket-jane
“Survey of Historic Costume” by Tortora & Eubank 2011
17. Empire Dress Nora Terry
Fashion in the period 1800–1815, or the Empire style fashion, in this period, fashionable women’s clothing styles were based on the Empire silhouette — dresses were closely fitted to the torso just under the bust, falling loosely below. This styles are commonly called “Empire style”. Women’s clothes were generally tight against the torso from the natural waist upwards, and heavily full-skirted below (often inflated by means of hoop skirts, crinolines, panniers, bustles, etc.). The high waistline of 1795–1820 styles took attention away from the natural waist, so that there was then no point to the tight “wasp-waist” corseting often considered fashionable during other periods. Without the corset, chemise dresses displayed the long line of the body, as well as the curves of the female torso. Neoclassicism fashion influenced the much greater simplicity of women’s dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: “Il n’est pas possible de s’exposer plus somptueusement!” (“One could not be more sumptuously undressed”). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics. Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead.”At this point in France, the silhouette of women’s dresses changed radically. A new style, elements of which are thought to have appeared first in England, became fashionable. Based on ancient Greek forms and cut with little or no sleeve, a low round neckline and a high waist the dress fell straight to the floor. Soft clinging fabrics were employed. Many were sheer and under these dresses some women wore little underwear aside from the chemise and no corseting. Others who were quite bold wore pink tights to give the illusion of flesh”(pg 310 Survey of Historic Costume)
18. Josephine Nora Terry
Joséphine, the eldest daughter of Joseph Tascher de La Pagerie, an impoverished aristocrat who had a commission in the navy, lived the first 15 years of her life on the island of Martinique. In 1779 she married a rich young army officer, Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, and moved to Paris. Although she bore him two children, Hortense and Eugène, the vain Alexandre was ashamed of her provincial manners and lack of sophistication and declined to present her at the court of Marie-Antoinette at Versailles; his indifference grew so great that in March 1785 she obtained a separation. She remained in Paris three years, learning the ways of the fashionable world, and went back to Martinique in 1788. In 1790 a slave uprising on the island forced Joséphine to return to Paris, which was then in the throes of the Revolution. She frequented high society, but her life was endangered when her husband, who had been serving in the Revolutionary army, fell out of favour with the left-wing Jacobins and was guillotined in June 1794. Joséphine herself was imprisoned, but, after the coup d’état of 9 Thermidor (July 27) put an end to the Terror, she was released and by the time of the inauguration of the Directory was a leader of Paris society. No longer unsophisticated, Joséphine was able to catch the fancy of Bonaparte, then a rising young army officer. She agreed to marry him after he had been appointed commander of the Italian expedition. Married in a civil ceremony on March 9, 1796, Joséphine was an indifferent wife, declining to answer the future emperor’s passionate love letters and, while he was campaigning in Egypt in 1798–99, flirting with another army officer in a most compromising manner. Bonaparte threatened to divorce her, but her children dissuaded him, and he eventually forgave her, even agreeing to pay the enormous debts she had accumulated. During the Consulate (1799–1804) she was careful to cause no more scandals and used her social position to advance her husband’s political fortunes. After Napoleon became emperor of the French in May 1804, she persuaded him to marry her anew with religious rites; the ceremony, which the emperor arranged most reluctantly, took place on December 1, 1804. The following day she attended Napoleon’s coronation by Pope Pius VII in Notre-Dame as empress. Joséphine’s place in the world now seemed secure. The marriages of her children Hortense (to Napoleon’s brother Louis) and Eugène (to the daughter of the king of Bavaria) seemed to establish her position, but her extravagance and, above all, her inability to give Napoleon a son put a strain on their marriage. Hoping to make a politically convenient marriage with Marie-Louise, daughter of Emperor Francis I of Austria, Napoleon in January 1810 arranged for the nullification of his 1804 marriage on the grounds that a parish priest had not been present at the ceremony. This slight technical irregularity, which seems to have been premeditated, enabled him to dispose of Joséphine without having to resort to a divorce, which would have displeased both the church and the Austrian emperor.
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